A GUIDE TO WRITING PROJECTS, THESES AND
DISSERTATIONS
INTRODUCTION & LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of an introduction in an empirical
research report is to introduce the problem area, establish its importance and
indicate the author’s perspective on the problem. Introductions usually
conclude with an explicit statement of the research hypothesis, or questions to
be explored in the study. When the introduction is usually long, it is a good
idea to use subheadings. Some researchers usually break down the Introduction
into a) Background to the problem, b) Statement of the problem, c)
Importance of the study etc. Generally, the introduction also provides the
theoretical basis for the study. In a journal article, the introduction is
usually integrated with the literature review. In theses, dissertations and
special research projects, it is common to have an introduction first followed
by the literature review. The literature review is usually used to provide the
background history of the problem.
The proposal's theoretical section occupies a
critical position in the proposal's text. You must at once demonstrate mastery
of the problem, highlight critical theoretical debates, point to shortcomings
in existing research and approaches, and indicate how your work will help fill
the void. The primary purpose of your theoretical review is to demonstrate your
familiarity with present intellectual currents and concerns. Your review should
not, however, be a general survey of the field. Your discussion must quickly
situate you and your work within the context of the field's theoretical themes.
At all times, keep in mind that your theoretical review must justify your
research question and help determine your research design. Point out debates
and disjuncture; expose the cracks and highlight the payoffs. Your second
primary task in reviewing existing theory and literature is to justify the need
for, and interest in, your proposed research. Justification for research can
come from a variety of sources. At one level, new events or developments may
justify an empirical review of a long-accepted theory's empirical foundations
(e.g., why no democratization in places with a strong middle class?). You may
also highlight rival claims within the literature of your field that can only
be resolved through empirical work (e.g., some claim peasants are motivated by
economic forces, others say they are not). Regardless, attempt to highlight
internal contradictions in the existing literature. Then demonstrate how your
work will contribute to their resolution. The following guidelines will help
you write a good introduction and literature review.
1. Start the introduction by describing the general
problem area and gradually shift the focus to the specific area of interest and
end with statement of research objectives of hypotheses.
2. The importance of a topic should be explicitly
stated in the introduction of a term paper, thesis or dissertation
3. A statement of importance should be specific to the
topic to be investigated.
4. Use the first person (I) if it facilitates the
smooth flow of the introduction\
5. The literature review should be presented in the
form of an essay and not in the form of an annotated list. An annotation is a
brief summary of contents while a literature review is an essay organized
around a topic outline that takes the reader from topic to topic.
6. The literature review should emphasize the findings
of previous research and not just the research methodologies and names of
variables studied.
7. Point out trends and themes in the existing
literature
8. Point out gaps in the literature. What the previous
studies covered and what they failed to cover and how your study will fill this
gap.
9. Consider pointing out the number or percentage of
people who are affected by the problem you are studying.
10.
Point out how
your study differs from previous studies
11.
Fell free to
comment on the quality and importance of the research you are reviewing.
12.
Use direct
quotes sparingly in literature reviews.
13.
Consider using
literature to provide the historical context of your study. In other words, use
literature review to build the background to the problem you intend to study.
WRITING
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND OBJECTIVES:
In a single sentence, a research hypothesis
describes the results that a researcher expects to find. It is a prediction or
an educated guess about the outcome one expects from an undertaken. There are
two types a) Research hypothesis and b) Null hypothesis. A research
hypothesis is the hypothesis that a researcher believes will be supported
by his or her data. This type of hypothesis is often used in journal articles
or articles in books. The null hypothesis on the other hand is a
statistical hypothesis that states that any difference is attributable to
random errors. In other words, the null hypothesis states that there is no true
difference only a random one. Significant tests are then used to test the null
hypothesis. In term projects, theses and dissertations students are often
required to state the null hypothesis.
Example
1:
Research
hypothesis:
Social
standing in campus organizations is directly related to gregariousness
Null
hypothesis:
a) There is no true relationship between
social standing in campus organizations and gregariousness… OR…
b) The relationship between social
standing in campus organizations and gregariousness is non-existent on CCSU
campus.
Example 2.
Private
school graduates have a higher proportion of fathers in high status occupations
that public school graduates.
Null
hypothesis:
a) There is no true difference in the
proportion of fathers in high status occupations between the populations of
public school and private school graduates.
b) The observed difference between the
proportions of fathers in high status occupations for private school graduates
and public school graduates is the result of chance associated with the random
sampling process.
WRITING
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES:
1. A research hypothesis should name two
variables and indicate the type of relationship
expected between
them.
Examples:
a) There is a direct relationship
between the concentration of pollutants and the amount of toxins found in fish.
b) Among rats, the length of light
deprivation from birth is inversely associated with performance in a difficult
task.
c) Among college students, there is an
inverse relationship between level of free-floating anxiety and ability to form
friendships.
2. If the relationship among variables is
expected only in a particular population,
reference must be
made to that population in the hypothesis. See example 1a, 1b, and 1c.
3. A hypothesis should be simple and contained
in one sentence.
4. If a comparison is to be made, the elements
to be compared should be stated in the
hypothesis.
Comparisons are introduced through the use of words such as “more”
less, higher,
lower etc. Be sure to complete any comparisons you start with these
terms. For
example: Do not write
a) Low achieving students are more
dependent on adults for psychological support. This is an incomplete sentence.
An improved one will read like this…
b) Low achieving students are more
dependent on adults for psychological support than high achievers.
5. Because most hypotheses deal with groups,
plural forms should be used. See the
example in 4b
above.
6. A hypothesis should indicate what will be
actually studies – not the possible implications of the
study or value
judgments of the author. For example, do not write this:
a) Religion is good for society. An
improved form will be:…
b) Attendance at religious services is
inversely associated with student’s cheating behavior while taking classroom
tests.
7. Name the variables in the order in which they
occur or will be measured during the
research. a)
There is a positive relationship between first semester grades earned in
college and SAT
scores. In this example a natural order gas been reversed because
SAT’s are taken prior a student’s
admission to college. An improved one will be (b)
There is a positive relationship between
SAT scores and grades earned in college.
8. Avoid using two different terms to refer to
the same variable, avoid using words such
as “prove” and
“significant” in a hypothesis.
9. Avoid using exact statistical predictions in
a hypothesis. For example, do not write:
a) Thirty-five percent less bacteria
contamination will be found in the air of operating rooms in which the staff
wears gloves. An improved one will read as..
b) Less bacterial contamination will be found in
the air of operating rooms in which staff wears gloves.
10. In a report, a hypothesis should flow
logically from the narrative that immediately precedes
it. A research
report begins with an introduction and literature review and these should
logically lead
the reader to the hypothesis.
11. When a number of related hypotheses are to
be stated, consider presenting them in a numbered
or lettered
lists.
The Research
Question
Your research question is the most critical part of
your research proposal -- it defines the proposal, it guides your arguments and
inquiry, and it provokes the interests of the reviewer. If your question does
not work well, no matter how strong the rest of the proposal, the proposal is
unlikely to be successful. Because of this, it is common to spend more time on
the researching, conceptualizing and forming of each individual word of the
research question than on any other part of the proposal. To write a strong
research question you will need time. Consider what drew you to your topic.
What about it animates and matters to you? Listen to yourself and start
formulating your question by following your own interests. Remember, you will
spend a lot of time researching and writing about the proposed project: if it
does not interest you in the beginning, it will certainly become very difficult
to write about in the end. Next, extensively research your topic. What have
people said about it? How have they framed their research? What gaps,
contradictions, or concerns arise for you as you read, talk to people, and
visit places? After you have done this, you can start crafting the question
itself. When you do, consider that a strong research question should be relevant,
clear, and researchable.
Hypotheses
or Objectives: Sometimes researchers are not interested in
examining relationships between variables or there may be too little knowledge
on a topic to permit the formulation of hypothesis. Under such conditions, a
research purpose (also called research objective) or research question might be
substituted for a hypothesis. Following the guidelines below could help you
write good research objectives.
1. When the goal of a research is to
describe group(s) without describing relationships among variables, write a
research objective instead of a hypothesis. For example, if the goal of a study
is to determine the level of public support for a project, the research
objective might be stated as (a) The objective of this
study is to determine the level of public support for the sale of special trash
bags to finance the Recycling program.
2. The research objective can also be
stated as a research question. In example 1a above, the research question ca be
stated as (b)
What is the level of public support for the sale of special trash bags to
finance the Recycling program. The choice between stating a research purpose as
a question or as an objective is a matter of choosing what reads more smoothly
in a particular context. One form may not be better than the other.
3. The research objective or question
should be as specific as possible yet stated concisely.
4. When a number of related purposes
are to be stated, consider presenting them in a numbered or lettered list. For
example one may state the following:
In sum, the following questions guided our study:
1) How important do
teachers perceive student
motivation for reading in the classroom?
2) How are teacher perceptions of
student motivation related to reading achievements?
3) To what extent do teacher
perceptions of student reading motivation vary across grade levels?
5. In a research report, the research
question or research objective should flow from the narrative that immediately
precedes it.
WRITING THE METHOD SECTION OF THE PROJECT.
The section on methods
contains a description of the physical steps you took to gather data to either
disprove or confirm your hypotheses or validate the objectives of the study.
Typically, the method section begins with a description of the individuals
(city dwellers), objects (i.e., textbooks), or features (rivers) you studied.
In reports on completed research use the past tense (I used…) to describe
methods; in proposals, use the future tense (e.g. I will use…).
1. Decide to use either subjects or
participants to refer to individuals studied. Traditionally, researchers
have used the term subjects to refer to these individuals but increasingly
researchers are using the term participants. Other terms you may consider using
include; respondents and examinees.
2. Describe the participants in enough
detail for the reader to visualize them. For example, participants’ gender and
ethnic composition, age, place of residence and income. These characteristics
can be presented in a table and explained in the report. As a rule, describe
those that are most relevant to issues being studied.
3. If you use a total population, name
it and if you use just a sample of the population, describe the method of
sampling. For example,
a. From the population of senior
citizens in the
4. If some participants withdraw from
the study, state the number that dropped and provide the reasons for the
attrition. For example
a. 4 boys and 3 girls dropped out of
the study because their parents moved out of the school district.
5. If you use a small sample from a
population, consider providing a description of the individual participants.
6. Describe the informed consent procedures
as well as steps taken to maintain confidentiality of the date gathering
process. You might sometimes be required to obtain informed consent from the
individuals who will be participating in the research. You might have to
prepare a consent form that describe the purpose of the study, possible
benefits and harm that might result from the study and identification of those
conducting the research and then give the report to participants to sign. In
your report, briefly describe the use of informed consent as…
a. Registration for the study was
conditional on the person signing a consent form that indicated that he was
over 18 years of age, knew he would be exposed to toxic materials and could
refuse to answer any question or withdraw at any time.
b. Measures taken to protect the
rights of participants to confidentiality should also be described in the
report as… A standard set of procedures was given to all test administrators.
The procedures prevented participants from ….
7. If you use measuring tools (e.g.
achievement tests, attitude scales, questionnaires, surveys and interview
schedules) that are unpublished, describe such tools in detail. Frequently, you
may have to construct your own measuring tool (interviews, questionnaires etc)
because none are available for your particular research objective. For
example
a. Attitude toward recycling was
measured with a questionnaire developed for this study. It contained nine
items. The first three measure attitudes toward the environment… Participants
were asked to rate each statement on a 5-point scale from 1 strongly agree to 5
strongly disagree. The questionnaire is shown in Appendix A.
8. For both published and unpublished
measuring tools, provide information on reliability and validity if available.
Above
Materials have been adapted from:
Fred Pyrczak and Randall Bruce (2000) Writing Empirical
Research Reports; a basic guide for students of the Social and Behavioral
Sciences.